Modular, microfluidic, mechanically active bioreactor for 3d, multi-tissue, tissue culture

ABSTRACT

Disclosed herein are various bioreactor devices and systems for growing cellular material, and related methods of growing cellular material. In some cases, a system can include a well plate having a plurality of wells and a bioreactor situated in each well of the well plate. In some cases, a bioreactor can include an inner body which divides the bioreactor into several distinct chambers and facilitates the growth of a multi-tissue sample in the bioreactor. In some cases, a system can include a mechanical actuator situated to mechanically stress tissues grown in a bioreactor.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No.14/913,063, filed Feb. 19, 2016, which is the U.S. National Stage ofInternational Application No. PCT/US2014/052348, filed Aug. 22, 2014,which claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Patent Application No.61/868,979, filed Aug. 22, 2013, all of which are incorporated byreference herein in their entirety.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT OF GOVERNMENT SUPPORT

This invention was made with government support under Grant No. TR000532awarded by National Institutes of Health, and Grant No. SAP 4100050913awarded by the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania Department of Health. Thegovernment has certain rights in the invention.

FIELD

The present disclosure relates to the design of bioreactor devices andsystems for growing cellular material, and to related methods of growingcellular material.

BACKGROUND

There exist many biological structures comprising multiple layers ofdifferent, interacting, tissue types. For example, epithelial layersrest on basement membranes that separate them from different underlyingtissue layers, as in the circulatory system (blood vessels), digestivesystem (esophagus, stomach, intestine), endocrine system (thyroid andother glands), integumentary system (skin), reproductive system(ovaries, fallopian tubes, endometrium, cervix, vagina, testes, and vasdeferens), respiratory system (oropharynx, larynx, trachea,bronchioles), sensory system (cornea), and the urinary system (bladderand urethra). Both epithelial and non-epithelial tissues are juxtaposedwith different types of biological tissues in the body, and may havecooperative biological effects on one another. It would be helpful tostudy different tissue types in vitro in an environment that takes intoaccount the interactive nature of biological tissues.

One example of a tissue complex comprising a plurality of differenttissues is the osteochondral tissue complex, which can in some cases beaffected by osteoarthritis (OA). OA is the most prevalent form ofarthritis, affecting up to 15% of the adult population. OA isprincipally characterized by degeneration of the articular cartilagecomponent of the joint, often with accompanying subchondral bonelesions. Understanding the mechanisms underlying the pathogenesis of OAis important for the rational development of disease modifying OA drugs(DMOADs). Most studies on OA have focused on the investigation of eitherthe cartilage or the bone component of the articular joint.

OA is a chronic degenerative disease of the articular joint whichinvolves cartilage, synovium, ligaments, bone, meniscus, tendon, andperi-articular muscle. Cartilage destruction is one of the commoncharacteristics of OA progression, and results in malfunction of theaffected joint. Normal articular cartilage is comprised of large amountsof extracellular matrix (mainly collagen type II), produced andmaintained by chondrocytes, the sole cell type in the cartilage. Duringdisease progression, net loss of cartilage matrix results from animbalance between cartilage matrix degradation and synthesis bychondrocytes in the cartilage. Due to absence of vascularization in thearticular cartilage, the capacity of self-repair in cartilage islimited, and currently, there is no effective therapy for the treatmentof OA except relieving the symptoms of the diseases until the jointsneed to be replaced by surgery.

OA involves more than simply degeneration of the articular cartilage—itis in fact a disease of the osteochondral tissue complex. Theosteochondral junction is highly structured; the uppermost superficialzone is characterized by elongated chondrocytes with collagen fibrilsaligning parallel to the articular surface. In the middle/intermediatezone, rounded chondrocytes and collagen fibrils are less organizedrelative to the surface. In the deep zone, vertical columns ofchondrocytes and fibers are organized perpendicular to the articularsurface. The highest concentration of proteoglycans is found in the deepzone. Adjacent to deep cartilage is the calcified cartilage zone, whichis characterized by larger and more dispersed hypertrophic chondrocytes.A wavy basophilic matrix, known as the tidemark, highlights the boundarybetween the deep and calcified cartilage zones. Vertically orientedcollagen fibers pass through the tidemark from the deep zone to thecalcified cartilage and are important for transferring mechanicalforces. Overall, the calcified zone marks the transition from softcartilage to stiff subchondral bones and is important for attaching thenoncalcified cartilage to bone. The subchondral bone is interdigitatedwith calcified cartilage, but, interestingly, the collagen fibers do notextend from the calcified zone to the bone. This physical linkagebetween cartilage and bone is a critical component in the pathogenesisof degenerative diseases such as OA.

There exists some debate as to whether OA begins in the cartilage or thebone and whether subchondral bone or articular cartilage is the moreappropriate target for disease modifying OA drug (DMOAD) development.Supporters of the “bone first” side of the debate maintain that, as the“substrate” for articular cartilage, subchondral bone plays a supportrole in cartilage health, and that any perturbations to subchondral boneare amplified as pathological conditions and are transferred from boneto cartilage. For example, studies have shown that osteophyte formationand changes in subchondral bones appear before measurable changes inarticular cartilage thickness as well as related joint space narrowing.Another group of studies suggest that healthy subchondral bone isessential for healthy cartilage. In tissue plugs cultured in vitro, bonetissue preserves chondrocyte survival. To some extent, the conventionalwisdom has been that healthy subchondral bone presents an impenetrable,impermeable barrier. However, it is possible that cartilage receivesnutrients, cytokines, hormones, and other biological signals from bonein vivo, and vice versa.

Proponents of the “cartilage first theory” argue that, while earlychanges to cartilage during OA are clearly coupled to bone alterationsvia mechanical and soluble factors, changes to the bone seem to besecondary to alterations in articular cartilage. Supporting evidencesuggests that OA changes to cartilage alter the mechanical environmentof the bone cells and induce them, in turn, to modulate tissuestructure. Several studies report that thickening of calcified cartilagealong with tidemark advancement contributes to thinning of articularcartilage. This leads to increased mechanical stresses in the matrix ofthe deep zone of cartilage and contributes to OA cartilagedeterioration.

SUMMARY

The present disclosure describes the construction of an in vitro3-dimensional (3D) microsystem that models the structure and biology oftissues that are adjacent or contiguous in the body such as theosteochondral complex of the articular joint. In certain embodiments,two or more different tissues can be grown adjacent to one another in abioreactor. A bioreactor can be configured with at least two chambers,each independently provided with nutrients and/or fluids, such thatdifferent tissues grown in the bioreactor can be fed with differentnutrients or fluids. Thus, two or more tissues can be grown adjacent toone another and their interaction(s) can be studied.

In certain embodiments, a bioreactor can include an upper chamber havinginlet and outlet ports and a lower chamber having inlet and outletports. The inlet ports can be fed by the same or independent sources ofbiological nutrients, such as liquid cell growth medium, that isperfused through each chamber from the inlet port to the outlet port. Afirst tissue can be situated in the upper chamber so as to be exposed tothe biological nutrients fed through the upper inlet port, and a secondtissue can be situated in the lower chamber so as to be exposed to thebiological nutrients fed through the lower inlet port. In certainembodiments, one or more additional tissue layers can be situated at aninterface that extends partially or completely between the first andsecond tissues. For example, the additional tissue layer may be a stemcell layer that can differentiate into the first tissue and/or thesecond layer, and/or that mediates biochemical communication betweenthose layers. In particular examples, the additional layer is a stemcell layer of ectoderm, mesenchyme, or endoderm. In some embodiments,the upper chamber and second chamber can establish substantiallyseparate microenvironments for the first and second tissue by supplyingseparate media or nutrient flow through the upper and lower inlet ports.Biochemical communication between the separate microenvironments canoccur via biochemical signals produced by the additional intermediatelayer at the interface instead of via the nutrient media flow.

One exemplary application of the devices, systems and methods describedherein is in improved studies of the osteochondral complex and OA. Whileprevious OA studies have focused on the investigation of either thecartilage or the bone component of the articular joint, theosteochondral complex represents a more physiologically relevant targetas OA ultimately is a disorder of osteochondral integrity and function.Thus, interactions between both bone and cartilage are central to OAprogression, and in studying OA, bone and cartilage are capable of beingstudied together instead of separately. Thus, the present disclosuredescribes 3D microtissue constructs including both cartilage and bone,in order to appropriately study the osteochondral environment and OA invitro.

Different osteogenic and chondrogenic tissue components can be producedusing adult human mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) derived from bone marrowand adipose seeded within biomaterial scaffoldsphotostereolithographically fabricated with a well-defined internalarchitecture. A 3D perfusion-ready container platform, such as a 3Dprinted platform, can house and maintain an osteochondral microsystemhaving any combination or all of the following features: (1) an anatomiccartilage/bone biphasic structure with a functional interface; (2) alltissue components derived from a single stem cell, such as an adultmesenchymal stem cell source to eliminate possible age/tissue typeincompatibility; (3) individual compartments to constitute separatemicroenvironments, for example for the “synovial” and “osseous”components; (4) accessible individual compartments which can becontrolled and regulated via the introduction of bioactive agents orcandidate effector cells, and tissue/medium sampling and compositionalassays; and (5) compatibility with the application of mechanical load orother perturbations, such as chemical, toxicological and other physicalperturbations. In certain embodiments, the container platform isdimensioned to fit within the wells of multiwell tissue culture plates,such as 24, 48, or 96 well plates, to perform high-throughput assays.The bioreactor can also have remote imaging capability to allownon-invasive functional monitoring of the bioreactor tissues.

The consequences of external perturbations, such as mechanical injury,exposure to drugs or inflammatory cytokines, and compromised bonequality, on degenerative changes in the cartilage component can beexamined in the osteochondral microsystem as a first step towards itseventual application as an improved and high-throughput in vitro modelfor prediction of efficacy, safety, bioavailability, and toxicologyoutcomes for candidate DMOADs. For example, the effect ofcorticosteroids or osteoactive agents on the different tissue types,such as bone and cartilage tissue, can be assessed. In addition, drugscreening can be performed to identify potential therapeutic agents totreat OA.

In some embodiments, a bioreactor can include a fluidic well platehaving dimensions equivalent to those of standard laboratory multi-wellplates. The fluidic well plate can have various numbers of wells, suchas one well, six wells, twelve wells, twenty-four wells, or ninety-sixwells. The wells of the well plates can be arranged in a grid havingrows and columns, and a row or a column of wells can be fluidicallyconnected by a first conduit feeding upper portions of each of the wellsin the row or column and by a second conduit feeding lower portions ofeach of the wells in the row or column. Each conduit can begin andterminate at the end of the plate at an inlet or an outlet port.

In some embodiments, a bioreactor can include a fluidic well insertconfigured to fit tightly within one of the wells of the fluidic wellplate and to support biological tissues at an interior of the insert.The insert can include a circumferential flange which seals the insertagainst the inside surface of one of the wells of the fluidic wellplate, thereby separating the respective well into the upper and lowerportions fed by the first and second conduits, respectively. The insertcan be hollow and thus biological tissues can be housed inside theinsert. The circumferential flange can separate an upper portion of theinsert from a lower portion of the insert, and each of the upper andlower portions of the insert can include pores through which fluids canflow. The insert can be configured to be situated within a standardized,commercially available well plate.

In some embodiments, a bioreactor can include a lid and an associatedsupport system which is configured to seal the fluidic well plate. Thelid can include a micro-mechanical actuator and a force sensor toprovide controllable deformation or load to tissue constructs in thewell plate. The micromechanical actuator can be associated with andaligned on center with a well of the well plate. The lid can be usedwith a commercially available well plate with or without an insertsituated in a well thereof.

Some embodiments include a modular, microfluidic, multi-tissue,mechano-active 3D bioreactor. A bioreactor can include a microfluidicbase, a bioreactor insert, and a mechanoactivating lid assembly. Invarious embodiments, a base, insert, and lid assembly can be used invarious combinations, sub-combinations, or individually. In someembodiments, a base permits direct or indirect interaction of two ormore native or engineered tissue types while simultaneously providingseparate fluid types to the various tissue types via microfluidicconduits which feed the tissue directly or via biological or physicalintermediates within the geometry of standard multi-well plates.

A bioreactor can be amenable and adaptable to common tissue culturepractices and devices (e.g., multi-channel pipettes, etc.) andhigh-throughput formats, depending on the scale of the wells. The insertcan divide a single well into upper and lower compartments which do notcommunicate directly. They may interact indirectly only through theintervening tissue/construct disposed within an inner chamber. Two ormore tissues in the inner chamber can interact with each other directlyor indirectly while being exposed to two different environments. Thedimensions of the inserts can be adapted to fit tissue culturecontainers of any size and shape. Tissues grown in a bioreactor can beexposed to mechano-activating or other damaging forces. Amechano-activating lid assembly can load and test tissue along avertical axis while maintaining sterility of the system.

Some embodiments allow growth of an anatomic biphasic structure with afunctional interface, and allow growth of each tissue type from a singlecell source to eliminate possible age/tissue type incompatibility. Someembodiments include individual compartments to constitute separatemicroenvironments for the different tissue types, such as for the“synovial” and “osseous” components of a microtissue, each beingindependently accessible to allow introduction of bioactive agents orcandidate effector cells. Some embodiments are compatible with theapplication of mechanical load and perturbation, as well as with imagingcapability to allow for non-invasive functional monitoring.

The devices, systems, and methods described herein can be used to studybone-cartilage interaction to investigate OA, although theirapplicability is not so limited. The devices, systems, and methodsdisclosed herein can be used to study bone-cartilage interaction toinvestigate other biological processes or effects, or can be used tostudy the interaction between other types of tissues. The foregoing andother objects, features, and advantages of the invention will becomemore apparent from the following detailed description, which proceedswith reference to the accompanying figures.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 shows a schematic, cross-sectional side view of an exemplarybioreactor having a microsystem of plural different tissue types growingtherein.

FIG. 2 shows a schematic, cross-sectional plan view of an exemplarybioreactor, a plan view of an exemplary array of bioreactors, and alocation of the exemplary bioreactor in the exemplary array ofbioreactors.

FIG. 3 shows three-dimensional renderings of an exemplary shell of abioreactor, inner body of a bioreactor, and upper ring of a bioreactor,in perspective views.

FIG. 4 shows a three-dimensional rendering of the components of anexemplary bioreactor, in an exploded view.

FIGS. 5A-5B show three-dimensional renderings of exemplary inner bodiesfor use in bioreactor systems, from two different views.

FIGS. 5C-5D show photographs of exemplary inner bodies for use inbioreactor systems, from two different views.

FIG. 5E is a schematic representation of a multiwell, dual chamberbioreactor system, with a 96 well bioreactor platform shown on theright, and a cross-sectional view of a single bioreactor on the left.

FIG. 6A shows a schematic plan view of an exemplary well plate having anarray of wells therein, within each of which a bioreactor inner body canbe situated, as well as a plurality of flow paths through the wellplate.

FIG. 6B shows a schematic side view of the well plate of FIG. 6A,including a plurality of upper ports and a plurality of lower ports.

FIG. 7 shows an image of an exemplary array of 24 bioreactors, from atop plan view.

FIG. 8 shows a schematic drawing of an exemplary system having aplurality of mechanical actuators capable of mechanically stressingtissues within bioreactors or laboratory plates.

FIG. 8A illustrates an exemplary method of imparting an array ofbioreactors with loading forces in groups of six at a time.

FIG. 9 shows a photograph of another exemplary system having a pluralityof mechanical actuators capable of mechanically activating/stressingtissues grown in bioreactors and measuring their mechanical properties.

FIG. 10 shows a schematic drawing of another exemplary system having aplurality of mechanical actuators capable of mechanicallyactivating/stressing tissues within laboratory multiwell plates andmeasuring their mechanical properties.

FIG. 11 shows a schematic drawing of another exemplary system having aplurality of mechanical actuators capable of mechanicallyactivating/stressing tissues within bioreactors and measuring theirmechanical properties.

FIGS. 12A and 12B show histology images of exemplary tissues grownaccording to the techniques described herein, at 10× and 20×magnification, respectively.

FIGS. 13A and 13B show osteoprotegerin IHC images of tissues grown inthe absence of endothelial cells, at 10× and 20× magnification,respectively.

FIGS. 14A and 14B show osteoprotegerin IHC images of tissues grown inthe presence of endothelial cells, at 10× and 20× magnification,respectively.

FIG. 15 shows a chart illustrating the behavior of tissues in thepresence and in the absence of endothelial cells, at 1 week, 4 weeks,and 6 weeks of growth.

FIG. 16 is a graph showing ELISA data demonstrating use of thebioreactor for evaluating response of cartilage and bone to exposure tohormones. Osteocalcin and osteoprogerin secretion from bone andcartilage is shown at day 7 (D7), day 14 (D14), day 21 (D21), and day 28(D28).

FIGS. 17-20 are graphs that show differential expression of markers (asdetermined by RT-PCR) for a control medium that contained no estrogen orprogesterone (first bar), and then different concentrations of hormonessupplied to one or the other of the bioreactor chambers during week 1(w1: 0.1 nM estradiol), week 2 (w2: 1 nM estradiol), week 3 (w3: 1 nMestradiol and 10 nM progesterone), and week 4 (w4: 0.1 nM estradiol and50 nM progesterone).

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

As used herein, “tissue” refers to an aggregation of one or more typesof specialized cells united in the performance of a particular function.Organs are formed by the functional groupings of multiple componenttissues, hence the tissue may be different types of cells from aparticular organ, such as bone. Different tissues can be divided intodifferent categories in several ways, such as based on the embryonicorigin of the tissue from ectoderm, mesoderm, or endoderm.Alternatively, the tissue may be a subunit of a physiological system,for example, bone and cartilage in the skeletal system, or an organ,such as dermis and epidermis in the skin, parenchyma and capsule in theliver, sinusoids and parenchyma in the liver, intestinal epithelium andunderlying mucosa in the intestine, neurons and myelin in a peripheralnerve, corneal endothelium and epithelium in the eye, renal cortex andmedulla in the kidney, and a variety of other distinct but anatomicallyadjacent tissues that may be found in the body. However, the differenttissue types are not confined to normal anatomic tissues but can alsoinclude different types of specialized cells found in pathologicalconditions, such as tumor and adjacent non-tumor tissue of the same ordifferent type, such as adenocarcinoma of the breast and adjacent normal(non-malignant) breast tissue.

As used herein, “chondrocyte” refers to cells found in healthycartilage, which help to produce and maintain the cartilaginous matrix.As used herein, “osteoblast” refers to the cells responsible for boneformation, which produce and mineralize a matrix of osteoid. A tissuethat comprises chondrocytes or osteoblasts is a tissue that containsthem, but need not exclusively consist of them. Examples of a tissuethat comprises chondrocytes are native cartilage or a culture ofchondrocytes as in an artificial cartilage construct. Examples of atissue that comprises osteoblasts is native bone or a culture ofosteoblasts as in an artificial osteoblast construct. As used herein,“matrix” refers to any material disposed between cells. A “matrix” caninclude any of various suitable biological or synthetic materials. Asused herein, “gel” refers to a solid, jelly-like material having asubstantially dilute cross-linked structure exhibiting no flow when inthe steady state. As used herein, “nutrient” refers to a biologicalsubstrate (such as a chemical, vitamin, blood serum, salt, yeastextract, etc.) that a cell requires to live, grow, and/or function,which must be or is advantageously taken from its environment. Examplesof other types of nutrients are various carbohydrates, fats, proteins,amino acids, minerals, water, oxygen, and various signaling moleculessuch as cytokines, growth factors, hormones, and metabolites. As usedherein, “OA” refers to osteoarthritis. As used herein, “DMOAD” refers toa disease modifying osteoarthritis drug, which is a subset of a diseasemodifying drug (DMD).

Tissues that are in “functional contact” with each other need not be inphysical contact, but can be separated by an intermediate layer thatmediates biochemical communication between the tissues. For example, alayer of mesenchymal stem cells between a layer of chondrocytes andosteoblasts can physically separate them but still permit biochemicalcommunication between the chondrocyte and osteoblast layers.

Engineered tissue constructs which properly incorporate plural tissuelayers into an interactive microtissue unit can help in accuratelystudying biological tissues and their interactions, and can help inelucidating the pathogenesis of various diseases and assessing theefficacy of potential therapeutics against those diseases. Some of thedevices, systems, and methods described herein facilitate the growth ofphysiologically accurate microsystems having distinct biological tissuelayers, such as those found within an organ (e.g., the liver) or otherphysiological system (e.g., the skeletal system). Portions of thecurrent disclosure refer to the osteochondral complex and OA, which areof particular interest herein, although the devices, systems, andmethods disclosed should be understood to be applicable to multi-tissuecultures generally.

A “nutrient fluid” is a liquid that supplies nutrients to living cells,such as a culture medium. Some such media are specialized to support thegrowth of a particular type of tissue, such as cartilage (cartilagemedia) or bone (bone media) or the cells contained in such tissue.

FIG. 1 shows a cross-sectional view of an exemplary bioreactor 100.Bioreactor 100 includes a shell 102 having a generally cylindrical innerspace, as well as an upper inlet 104, lower inlet 106, upper outlet 108,and lower outlet 110. The shell 102 has a closed bottom end 112 and anopen top end 114. Several components are situated within the shell 102in order to facilitate desirable cellular growth therein. For example,the shell 102 encloses an inner body 116 which has a hollow interior 120and includes a central protruding ring 118 having an outer diameterapproximating the inner diameter of the shell 102. The inner body 116also includes a lower porous screen 124, such as having lateralperforations, and an upper porous screen 126, such as having lateralperforations, each of which can have an outside diameter which issmaller than the inside diameter of the shell 102. Together, theprotruding ring 118 and porous screens 124, 126 divide the interior ofthe shell 102 into an inner lower chamber 128, an outer lower chamber130, an inner upper chamber 132, and an outer upper chamber 134. Fluidscan flow laterally through the upper porous screen 126 between the innerupper chamber 132 and the outer upper chamber 134, and fluids can flowlaterally through the lower porous screen 124 between the inner lowerchamber 128 and the outer lower chamber 130.

As shown in FIG. 1, the bioreactor 100 can further include an upper ring136 and a piston 138. The piston 138 can be used to impart a compressiveforce on materials situated within the bioreactor 100, and the upperring 136 can form a sealing element between the piston 138 and the shell102. The upper ring 136 seals the open top end 114 of the bioreactor 100while allowing the piston 138 to move into and out of the shell 102.Various substances (e.g., nutrients) can flow into the bioreactor 100through the inlets 104, 106, around or through the inner body 116, andout of the bioreactor 100 through the outlets 108, 110.

Some of the substances entering the bioreactor 100 through inlet 104,for example, can flow around the upper porous screen 126 and out theoutlet 108. Some of the media entering the bioreactor 100 through inlet104 (the amount depending on the characteristics of the components ofthe system) can also flow laterally through the upper porous screen 126,through cellular tissues growing inside the inner body 116, flowlaterally through the opposing side of the upper porous screen 126, andout through outlet 108. Finally, some of the media entering thebioreactor 100 through inlet 104 (again, the amount depending on thecharacteristics of the components of the system) can also flow throughthe upper porous screen 126, through cellular tissues growing inside theinner body 116, through the lower porous screen 124, and out throughoutlet 110. Corresponding flow paths are available for media enteringthe bioreactor through inlet 106.

This design allows for the provision of different fluids, compounds, andnutrients (e.g., a tissue culture medium or nutrient broth such asserum, or various other growth factors, steroids, growth hormones,etc.), or different concentrations of such materials, to the upper andlower chambers, and thus to different biological tissue layers disposedwithin the bioreactor 100. In some cases, the specific fluids andnutrients used can be tailored to the particular cell types grown in thebioreactor. For example, in bioreactor 100, hypoxic fluids can be fedthrough the upper chamber while normoxic fluids are fed through thelower chamber.

FIG. 1 shows that cellular material can be grown in at least 5 separateregions within the bioreactor 100. As shown, an osteoblast construct 140can grow in the inner lower chamber 128, a mesenchymal construct 142 cangrow on top of the osteoblast construct 140, and a chondrocyte construct144 can grow on top of the mesenchymal construct 142. The chondrocyteconstruct 144 can be exposed to the piston 138 or a layer of synovialfluid can separate the chondrocyte construct 144 from the piston 138,and in either case, the piston 138 can be actuated to impart forcesthrough the chondrocyte construct 144, the mesenchymal construct 142,and the osteoblast construct 140 to the bottom end 112 of the shell 102.Further, a layer of endothelial cells 146 can grow on the exterior ofthe lower porous screen 124, and a layer of human fibroblast cells 148can grow on the exterior of the upper porous screen 126.

FIG. 2 shows a cross sectional plan view of the bioreactor 100 and itslocation within an exemplary array 200 of ninety six bioreactors 100.FIG. 2 shows that plural bioreactors 100 can be arranged in an array 200such that the outlets of some bioreactors are fluidly coupled to theinlets of other bioreactors. For example, the outlets 108, 110 ofbioreactor 100 a are coupled to the inlets 104, 106 of bioreactor 100 b,respectively, and the outlets 108, 110 of bioreactor 100 b are coupledto the inlets 104, 106 of bioreactor 100 c, respectively. Thus, aplurality of bioreactors 100 can be coupled in series to facilitatedistribution of substances through them. Additionally, a plurality ofseries 202 of multiple bioreactors 100 can be arranged adjacent oneanother to form the array 200. The plurality of series 202 can befluidly coupled either in series or in parallel with one another.

FIG. 3 shows an exemplary shell 300, exemplary inner body 302, and anexemplary upper ring 304. The shell 300 has an overall hollowcylindrical shape, and comprises an upper inlet 306, a lower inlet 308,an upper outlet 310, and a lower outlet 312, each of which comprises ahollow, generally cylindrical extension extending radially outwardlyfrom the shell 300. The shell 300 also includes a hollow, generallycylindrical inner space 314 within which the inner body 302, upper ring304, and cellular material can be situated. The inner body 302 includesa lower porous screen 318 and an upper porous screen 316, both of whichinclude a plurality of pores, or small openings, 326. The inner body 302also includes a protruding ring 320 which protrudes radially outwardlyfrom the rest of the inner body 302, and which has an outside diameterapproximating the inner diameter of the inner space 314. Thus, when theinner body 302 is situated within the shell 300, several distinctchambers can be formed, as described above with regard to bioreactor100.

FIG. 3 also shows that upper ring 304 has a groove 324 extending aroundthe circumference of the inner surface of one end of the upper ring 304.The upper ring also has a main inner surface 328 having a generallycylindrical shape and an inner diameter approximating an inner diameterof the inner cylindrical space 330 in the inner body 302. FIG. 4 showsthe exemplary shell 300, inner body 302, upper ring 304, chondrocyteconstruct 144, and osteoblast construct 140, aligned along axis 332 inan exploded view. These elements can be combined, together with amesenchymal construct (not shown) to form a bioreactor similar tobioreactor 100. When these components are assembled to form a bioreactorin this manner, the osteoblast construct 140, mesenchymal construct, andchondrocyte construct 144 are situated within the inner space 330 withinthe inner body 302. Further, a top end portion 322 of the inner body 302can be situated within the groove 324 of the upper ring 304 tofacilitate sealing of the system (note a similar structuralconfiguration in FIG. 1—a top end of the upper porous screen 126 issituated within a similar groove at the bottom end portion of the uppersealing ring 136).

FIGS. 5A-5B show alternate views of the inner body 302 shown in FIGS.3-4. FIG. 5B shows that the inner body 302 has a cylindrical inner openspace 330 which spans through the entire body 302 to accommodate thepositioning of cellular material therein. FIGS. 5C-D illustrate an innerbody 350 comprising a lower porous screen 352, an upper porous screen354, and a protruding ring 356. The lower and upper porous screens havea plurality of pores 358. The inner body 350 also includes a sealingo-ring 360 disposed around the outside of the central protruding ring356. The o-ring 360 helps seal the inner body 350 against the innersurface of a shell (e.g., shell 102) to more effectively maintaindistinct chambers within the shell. The inner body 350 can befabricated, for example, photolithographically using a biocompatibleplastic-polymer. In some embodiments, the shell, body and/or ring of aninner body, or other parts of a bioreactor, can be fabricated withcommercially available E-shell 300™ polymer resin usingphoto-stereolithography (PSL).

FIG. 5E is a schematic representation of a multiwell, dual chamberbioreactor system, with a 96 well bioreactor platform 362 shown at thelower right, and a cross-sectional view of a single bioreactor shown atthe upper left. The multi-well platform 362 includes a plurality or rowsof eight wells 370 that are in fluid communication from one inlet/outletpair 364 across the row of wells 370 to an opposite inlet/outlet pair366. Each well 370 is configured to receive a bioreactor insert 372 anda sealing lid 374 (the lid can be replaced with and/or incorporated intoa mechanical actuator or piston that applies a mechanical loadingpattern downward on the tissue/fluid in the bioreactor). The insert 372is sealingly engaged with the inner surfaces of the well 370 via ano-ring 376 to form separate upper and lower fluid flow chambers. The lid374 is also sealingly engaged with the inner surfaces of the well 370via another o-ring 378 to prevent fluid escaping from the well. Theinsert 372 can contain at least two layers of biological material, suchan upper layer 380 and a lower layer 382 as shown. The upper layer 380can comprise a chondral construct and/or the lower layer 382 cancomprise a osseous construct, for example. One or more additionallayers, such as an intermediate layer, can also be included. Anintermediate mesenchymal layer can be included, for example. Each wellhas two opposing upper inlet/outlets 384 and 388, which allow a firstfluid to flow through the upper chamber to interact with the upper layer380, and two opposing lower inlets/outlets 386, 390, which allow asecond fluid to flow through the lower chamber to interact with thelower layer 382. The first fluid can comprise a chondrogenic mediumand/or the second fluid can comprise an osteogenic medium, for example.

As illustrated in FIG. 5E, the first fluid can enter at 384 and thenpass laterally through perforations in the insert 372 to enter the upperlayer 380 laterally. The first fluid can then exit the upper layer 380laterally through the perforations in the insert 372 before exiting thebioreactor at 388. The perforations can extend circumferentially aroundthe insert 372 such that the first fluid can flow around the upper layerand can interact laterally with the upper layer from all lateral sides.Some of the first fluid can also flow over the top of the upper layerand perfuse into and out of the upper layer from its upper surface.Similarly, the second fluid can enter at 386 and then pass laterallythrough perforations in the lower portion of insert 372 to enter thelower layer 382 laterally. The second fluid can then exit the lowerlayer 382 laterally through the perforations in the insert 372 beforeexiting the bioreactor at 390. The perforations can extendcircumferentially around the lower portion of the insert 372 such thatthe second fluid can flow around the lower layer and can interactlaterally with the lower layer from all lateral sides.

FIG. 6A illustrates in plan view an exemplary array 400 of wells 402,within each of which an insert such as insert 350 can be situated. Thearray 400 of wells 402 includes six sets 410 of four wells 402 fluidlycoupled in series. Thus, a flow path through four wells 402 isillustrated as conduit path 404, along which fluids can flow either froma first end 406 to a second end 408 or from the second end 408 to thefirst end 406. Thus, the first end 406 can be either an inlet or andoutlet, and the second end 408 can be either an inlet or an outlet,depending on the direction of flow along the conduit path 404. FIG. 6Billustrates the array 400 from a side view, showing that each set 410 ofwells 402 can have both an upper port 412 and a lower port 414 forcarrying fluids into or out of the set 410 of wells 402, depending onthe direction of flow along the conduit path 404.

FIG. 7 shows an array 450 of wells 452 similar to the array 400, withtwenty-four wells 452 each having an integrated well insert. The wells452 are arranged in six sets 454 of four wells 452 fluidly coupled inseries. Each of the six sets of wells 452 is provided with a port 456 ateach end, through which fluid can either enter or exit, depending on theflow path through the set 454 of wells 452.

In some embodiments, systems capable of mechanically stressing thecellular material grown in a bioreactor are desirable. Natural bone andcartilage growth is known to be affected by mechanical stressesencountered by those tissues as they grow, thus systems allowing theintroduction of such stresses can facilitate tissue growth which moreaccurately resembles native tissue growth. Accordingly, FIGS. 8-11illustrate several systems capable of mechanically stressing tissues asthey grow in a bioreactor such as the bioreactor 100 described above.

FIG. 8 shows an exemplary system 500 comprising an array 502 of sixbioreactors 504, which can have various configurations but in onespecific embodiment can be similar to the bioreactor 100. The array 502can be situated on a mount 506 which can be horizontally slidablerelative to a base plate 508. The mount 506 can be actuated to movehorizontally relative to the base plate 508 using a sliding actuator510. The system 500 also includes a set of vertical extension arms 512rigidly coupled to the base plate 508, and an actuator housing 514rigidly coupled to the extension arms 512. The actuator housing 514houses six micromechanical actuators 516, which can be used to impartforces to the bioreactors 504. The actuators 516 can also include forcesensors 518 to monitor the force being imparted to ensure thatsufficient, but not excessive, force is imparted to the bioreactors 504and the tissues grown therein.

The system 500 can be modified to allow the six actuators 516 tomechanically stress more than six bioreactors 504. For example,additional bioreactors 504 can be situated on the mount 506 and can bemoved under the actuators 516 by action of the sliding actuator 510.Thus, the actuators 516 can be used to sequentially stress tissues in alarger number of bioreactors. In other embodiments, a second slidingactuator can be used to make the mount 506 slidable along twoperpendicular axes. Thus, the actuators 116 can be used to inducestresses in tissues in bioreactors of an array having a larger number ofbioreactors 504 in two dimensions.

FIG. 8A illustrates an exemplary method in which a multi-well tray ofbioreactors can be sequentially stressed with loading forces in groups.For example, the tray 520 contains 24 bioreactors in a 4-by-6 array ofwells 522. A mechanical loading apparatus, similar to that described inFIG. 8, can apply loading forces to groups of six of the bioreactors ata time. An exemplary group of six is represented by the six dots 524.After providing loading forces on the group of six represented by thedots 524, the tray 520 and/or the loading mechanism can be shifted suchthat a different group of six wells 522 and bioreactors is positionedbelow the six loading members of the loading mechanism. This can berepeated until all 24 bioreactors are imparted with loading forces. Inthis way, the total of 24 bioreactors can be imparted with loads in foursessions, with six bioreactors being imparted with loading forces ineach of the four sessions. FIG. 8A illustrates just one exemplaryloading pattern. In other loading patterns, groups of different numbersand/or arrangements of bioreactors can be included in each loadingsession.

FIG. 9 shows a side view of an exemplary system 550 comprising sixbioreactors 552 housed in a container 554, the container 554 situated ona tray 556 resting on a rigid surface 558. FIG. 9 also shows thatsupports 560, resting on the rigid surface 558, support an actuatorsupport platform 562, on which six micromechanical actuators 564 aremounted. As in system 500, system 550 can be used to mechanically stresstissues grown in the six bioreactors 552 situated below the actuators564. As in system 500, force sensors 566 can be coupled to the actuators564 to measure the forces imparted by the actuators, to ensuresufficient, but not excessive, force is imparted to the tissues in thebioreactors 552. Wiring 568 can be used to couple the actuators to acontroller unit such as a computer (not shown). The controller unit canbe used to control the forces exerted by the actuators and to monitorforce readings from the force sensors 566.

FIG. 10 shows another exemplary system 600 including a twenty-four wellplate 602 and a mechanical stimulator lid assembly 604. The well plate602 comprises twenty four wells, within each of which a bioreactor(e.g., bioreactor 100) can be situated. An inner body (e.g., an innerbody similar to inner body 116) having a protruding ring and beingconfigured to be situated within a well of the well plate 602 can haveat least one vertical channel formed in its protruding ring, whichchannel can be configured to accommodate a pipe or tube which can carryfluid from the lower chamber of a first bioreactor, over the wallbetween adjacent wells of the well plate 602, and to the lower chamberof a second bioreactor adjacent to the first bioreactor. The mechanicalstimulator lid assembly 604 comprises twenty-four micromechanicalactuators 606 and twenty-four respective force sensors 608 withassociated pistons. The actuators 606 and the sensors 608 are mounted ona support plate 610. As in previous embodiments, the actuators 606 canbe used to mechanically stress tissue growing in bioreactors situated inthe wells of the well plate 602.

FIG. 11 shows another exemplary system 650 similar to system 600. System650 includes a twenty four well plate 652 comprising twenty-four wells654, and a mechanical stimulator lid assembly 656 comprising twenty fourmicromechanical actuators 658 and twenty-four force sensors 660 mountedon a support plate 662. Additionally, FIG. 11 shows upper inlets 664,lower inlets 666, upper outlet 668, and lower outlet 670.

In some embodiments, mechanical actuation or perturbation of tissues ina bioreactor, as described herein, can comprise a “gentle” applicationof load, for instance <10% strain for 1 hour a day, that mimics thegeneral mechanical environment of the joints without causing damage, andit generally promotes the production and maintenance of better tissue.In other embodiments, mechanical actuation or perturbation cancomprise >10% strain that can induce a response similar to an injuryresponse.

The devices, systems, and techniques so far described can be used tofacilitate the growth of different tissues, such as tissue found in anorgan, for example, an osteochondral microtissue construct from bone.The proposed construct (shown for example in FIG. 1) involves a layeredosteochondral tissue composite including, from bottom to top: bone,osteochondral interface, cartilage, and synovium, cultured within aperfusion-ready container mold. As described above, the bone constructcan be peripherally surrounded by endothelium to simulate the biologicaleffects of blood vessels and the vasculature on OA. The endothelium canin some cases extend from its location shown in FIG. 1 to formcapillary-like structures within the osteoblast construct.Culture-expanded human vascular endothelial cells can be used to formthe endothelial lining. The cartilage construct can in some cases alsobe peripherally surrounded by endothelium, or, as shown in FIG. 1, canbe surrounded by human fibroblast (hi) material. Such a layer of hfmaterial can help to simulate interstitial cellular material present inmany tissues, for example, the inner lining of the synovial cavity.

Endothelial cells release factors such as fibroblast growth factors(FGFs), interleukin-1β (IL-1β), and interleukin-6 (IL-6), and nitricoxide (NO) which influence both bone and osteoclast behavior, therebyregulating bone formation and resorption. In particular, endothelialcells provide a robust source of bone morphogenetic protein-2 (BMP-2)which enhances the osteogenic phenotype in bone and bone-progenitorcells. In turn, endothelial cells are the target of many bone-derivedsignals, such as parathyroid hormone (PTH), insulin-like growth factorstypes 1 and 2 (IGF-1 and IGF-2), basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF),platelet derived growth factor (PDGF), and vascular endothelial cellgrowth factor (VEGF).

Each type of tissue used in the devices, systems, and methods describedherein can be formulated with the use of scaffold crosslinkingtechnologies, such as projection stereolithography (PSL) to incorporateinternal 3D spatial features which permit optimal tissue formation andmedium perfusion. For example, 500-micron-diameter channels can befabricated within the bone construct to aid in nutrient dispersionthroughout the construct. Bone can be formed by seeding and culturingMSCs in photocrosslinked collagen/hydroxyapatite. Collagen andhydroxyapatite, or Ca₁₀(PO₄)₆(OH)₂, are primary components of bone, andboth are frequently used in tissue engineered bone constructs. Cartilagecan be engineered by seeding MSCs in a photo-activated/crosslinkedpolymeric gel, such as a collagen/chitosan gel, and treated with TGF-β3.Chitosan can be advantageous, as it shares some structuralcharacteristics with glycosaminoglycans, a critical component ofcartilage responsible for many of its specific mechanical properties.With its many primary amine groups, chitosan can also aid in collagencrosslinking.

Osteochondral interfaces can be formed from a variety of cellular andother materials arranged in various combinations with one another. Anexemplary osteochondral interface can be formed by placing a layer ofMSC-laden collagen type I hydrogel between the chondral and osseouslayers. The synovial lining can be generated with MSCs seeded incrosslinked polyethylene glycol alone and cultured in non-inductivemedium. These conditions have been shown in preliminary experiments tobe capable of maintaining a fibroblastic phenotype in MSCs. Aspreviously mentioned, the endothelial component can comprise endothelialcells embedded in collagen to surround the osteochondral elements.Collagen gels can be selected based on their susceptibility tomodification and contraction by endothelial cells and osteoblasts, whichcan result in a tight fit around the osteoblast construct.

As there are limited differentiated cell sources available for cartilageand bone tissue engineering, adult multipotent mesenchymal stem cells(MSCs), with their well-characterized ability to differentiate intochondrocyte- and osteoblast-like cells, represent an advantageouscandidate cell source for engineering these tissues. Human MSCs derivedfrom bone marrow or from adipose (lipoaspirate) can be used as theprogenitor cell population to engineer the bone, cartilage, and synoviumcomponents of the microtissue. However, the microtissue system describedherein is compatible with constructs derived from any type of progenitoror primary cell. Indeed, induced pluripotent stem cells, with theirability to be propagated to meet the high cell requirements of tissueengineering, represent an attractive, high-quality cell source andprovide one exemplary alternative source.

Bioreactor designs can include two separate circulating feeding/deliverysystems, such as those shown in FIG. 1 including lower chambers 128, 130and upper chambers 132, 134, which may be mixed if desired. A firstsystem (e.g., chambers 132, 134) can supply an upper “synovialcompartment” and can be separated by an upper screen (such as upperporous screen 126) having 20 μm pores, which in some cases can include a0.2 μm filter lining. An outer surface of the upper screen can belayered with endothelial cells which adhere thereto and develop afterthe cells are delivered by perfusion once the construct is assembled.The inner surface of the screen can be lined with a collar ofMSC-embedded photo-polymerized hydrogel to constitute the synovium. Asecond system (e.g., chambers 128 and 130) can supply the bony tissueconstruct and can be separated from the bone with a rigid wall (e.g.,lower porous screen 124) with ≥20 μm pores, thus delivering nutrients aswell as allowing endothelial cells and other cells to adhere to andmigrate into the bony tissue and create new biologically relevantniches.

As described above, bioreactor systems can include mechanical loadingmechanisms. In one exemplary design, the loading device includes a 3 mmloading surface having an unloaded position <0.5 mm from the cartilagesurface, and is configured for loading of 5% strain (100 μm) at 0.1 Hz.Reports in the literature suggest that this combination of strain andloading rate should be chondro-stimulatory in engineered cartilageconstructs. Furthermore, extreme loading can be applied in conjunctionwith stimulation by biochemical stresses to simulate physical injurywithin the microtissue system. In alternative embodiments, themechanical loading can be force- or stress-driven rather thanstrain-driven.

One aspect of the microtissue described herein is its ability to mimicthe tissue relationships within the osteochondral complex of thearticular joint and to characterize responses to mechanical,toxicological, pathological and inflammatory insults or perturbations.The application of the devices, systems, and methods described hereintoward these types of studies can proceed according to several steps.First, behavior of the microtissue grown using the devices, systems andmethods described herein can be validated under non-stressed conditionsto confirm proper matrix production, differentiation marker expression,and tide mark development. Second, the system can be perturbed withmechanical, chemical, and/or toxicological stresses, insults, orperturbations to demonstrate that the microtissue responds according topublished in vivo studies.

Third, once validated, the system can be used to investigate biologicalprocess not easily studied by traditional means. For example, to studythe effects of mechanical injury, the cartilage component can bepre-injured prior to microtissue assembly to study the effects ofdamaged cartilage on bone health. Alternatively, the assembled andmatured microtissue can be impacted to study changes in cartilage andbone anabolic/catabolic pathways and disruption of the tidemark.Similarly, the microtissue system can be employed as a high-throughputin-vitro model to assess the effects of treatment with glucocorticoids,pro-inflammatory cytokines, anti-inflammatory biologics, evenbiomaterial wear debris, such as titanium and polyethylenemicroparticles, on osteochondral health. Microtissue systems grown usingthe devices, systems, and methods described herein offer novelcapabilities for investigating the pathogenic mechanisms of OA as wellas serving as a high-throughput platform to test candidate DMOADs.

In some methods for developing functional endochondral microtissue, thecomponents of a bioreactor platform (such as including a shell, innerbody, upper ring, and other components, similar to those of bioreactor100) can initially be fabricated, and then the platform design andintegrity can be verified using, e.g., structural and media (pH, oxygen,etc.) tests.

In some methods, undifferentiated MSCs can initially be isolated, andthen some of them can be pre-differentiated into osteoblasts andchondrocytes. MSC differentiation can then be verified using, e.g.,histological and reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction(“RT-PCR”) techniques. In some embodiments, undifferentiated MSCs can beencapsulated in a collagen type 1 gel to form a mesenchymal construct.Undifferentiated MSCs can also be encapsulated in PEG to form asynovium. Pre-differentiated osteoblasts can be encapsulated inhydroxyapatite-containing collagen type 1 gel to form an osteoblastconstruct. Pre-differentiated chondrocytes can be encapsulated in acollagen type 1/chitosan gel to form a chondrocyte construct.Separately, endothelial cells can be isolated and encapsulated in acollagen type 1 gel to form an endothelium. While specific examples ofsuitable gel matrices are provided herein for exemplary purposes,various other suitable gels are available for use with the variouscellular materials. In some embodiments, biological tissues can be usedas an alternative to gel matrices for suspending the cellular material.

The various microtissue cellular components thus formed (e.g.,mesenchymal construct, synovium, osteoblast construct, chondrocyteconstruct, and endothelium) can then be verified for viability andtissue type, using, e.g.,3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-5-(3-carboxymethoxyphenyl)-2-(4-sulfophenyl)-2H-tetrazolium(“MTS”), Live/Dead staining, and/or histology/immunohistochemistry(“IHC”) techniques.

The components of a fabricated bioreactor platform can then be combinedwith these and/or other microtissue cellular components to assemble abioreactor similar to bioreactor 100. Performance of the microtissues inthe bioreactor can then be verified using, e.g., leakage tests, microcomputed tomography (“mCT”), magnetic resonance imaging (“MRI”), MTS,Live/Dead, imaging, and/or histology/IHC techniques.

In some embodiments, a mechanical loading system can be provided that isconfigured to provide a physiological load to the tissue in thebioreactor. Such a loading system can then be verified using, e.g., mCT,MRI, histology/IHC, or imaging techniques.

In some embodiments, the microtissues in a bioreactor can be treatedwith various insults, such as mechanical, chemical, toxicological,and/or biological insults or perturbations. For example, the microtissuecan be mechanically injured by providing a pathogenic load, and themicrotissue response can then be measured. As another example, bonepathology can be investigated by treating an osteoblast construct withglucocorticoids and measuring the microtissue response. As yet anotherexample, bone inflammation can be investigated by treating an osteoblastconstruct with pro-inflammatory cytokines (e.g., TNF-α, etc.) andmeasuring the microtissue response. As another example, bone exposure toparticulates can be investigated by treating an osteoblast constructwith titanium microparticles and measuring the microtissue response. Asanother example, the microtissues can be exposed to any of variousimplant wear debris, such as microparticles ofultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylene (UHMWPE), titanium,chromium/cobalt, etc., and the microtissue response can be measured. Asanother example, the microtissues can be exposed to various cells, suchas cells typical of an inflammatory environment, and the microtissueresponse can be measured. In each of these examples, the microtissueresponse can be measured using, e.g., ELISA, imaging, histology/IHC,mCT, MRI, or matrix metalloproteinases (“MMP”) activity techniques.

In some embodiments, cartilage health can be tracked based on geneexpression activities, e.g., using adeno-associated virus (AAV)-basedtissue-specific promoter-reporter constructs.

While portions of the present disclosure have been directed to thegrowth and study of bone and cartilage tissues, the devices, systems,and methods disclosed herein are applicable to various other biologicaltissues and structures. For example, the bioreactors and methodsdescribed herein can be used to facilitate the growth and/or study ofany set of tissues, particularly a set of tissues in which interactionsbetween the different tissues are suspected or known to exist and are atarget for study. For example, a single layer of tissue or combinationsof two, or three, or four, or five, or more layers of different tissuescan be studied using the devices, systems, and methods disclosed herein.Specific examples include an osteochondral complex and chondrocytecomplex without a mesenchymal complex, and various other examplesprovided above.

Further, either as a substitute for or in addition to an MSC layer, insome cases, a membrane having any of various suitable pore sizes can besituated between any of various tissue layers being cultured in abioreactor. For example, the membrane could take the place of an MSClayer as described above. Further, except where structurally impossible,any of the devices, systems, and components thereof described herein canbe used in any of various suitable combinations with one another. Forexample, any of the inserts (e.g., as shown in FIGS. 5A-B) describedherein can be used in combination with any of the fluidic systems (e.g.,well plates) described herein, and/or in combination with any of theperturbation sources (e.g., mechanical actuators, chemicalperturbations, or toxicological perturbations) described herein.Further, any of the dimensions of such devices and components thereofcan be modified to accommodate other components and devices.

In some embodiments, bioreactors and associate components, as describedherein, can comprise materials that are transparent to X rays so that itis possible to image by microCT the construct within the bioreactor.Similarly, the bioreactor materials can be such that other imagingtechniques, such as fluorescence microscopy, can be used“non-invasively,” without removing the constructs from the bioreactor.

Example 1

To evaluate some of the devices, systems, methods, and techniquesdescribed herein, studies were conducted. Tissue engineering (TE) bonewas formed by seeding human MSCs (4-20×10⁶/ml) in gelatin/hydroxyapatitehydrogels by photocrosslinking, and cultured in BMP-2 includedosteogenic media. Cartilage was engineered by seeding MSCs (4-60×10⁶/ml)in gelatin/hyaluronic acid hydrogel by photocrosslinking, and treatedwith transforming growth factor-β3 (TGF-β3) included chondrogenicmedium. Osteochondral interfaces were formed by placing layers ofMSC-laden (4-20×10⁶/ml) gelatin hydrogels between the chondral andosseous-constructs. This 3-layer TE osteochondral tissue was theninserted into the mold shown in FIGS. 5C and 5D and cultured in achamber as shown in FIG. 6 with 2 separated fluid streams for 6 weeks.The upper fluid stream 384 supplied chondrogenic medium (CM) and thelower fluid stream 386 supplied osteogenic medium (OM) at a flow rate of1 μl/s. [CM: Dulbecco's Modified Eagle's Medium (DMEM) supplemented with10 ng/ml recombinant human TGF-β3 (Peprotech), 1%Insulin-Transferrin-Selenium, 50 μM ascorbic acid 2-phosphate, 55 μMsodium pyruvate, 23 μM L-proline, and 1% antibiotics-antimycotic. OM:α-MEM containing 10% fetal bovine serum, 1% antibiotics-antimycotic, 10ng/ml recombinant human bone morphogenetic protein-2 (BMP-2; PeproTech),1% L-alanyl-L-glutamine, 10 nM dexamethasone, 0.1 mM L-ascorbic acid2-phosphate, and 10 mM β-glycerophosphate].

Next, a native bone and endothelial cell construct was prepared. Themicrovascular endothelial cell (EC) line HMEC-1 was maintained inEGM-2MV media (Lonza). Human bone plugs were harvested from humantrabecular bone using 5.0 mm diameter biopsy hole punches (Miltex) andcultured in DMEM/10% FBS/1% PS for two weeks. EC-containing collagengels were prepared using the 3D Collagen Culture Kit (Millipore)according to the manufacturer's instructions. Briefly, ice-cold 0.4 mlcollagen solution was mixed with 0.1 ml 5×M199 medium and 12.5 μlneutralization solution in 1.5 ml Eppendorf tubes. 25 μl of EC solution(40×10⁶ cells/ml DMEM) was added and mixed thoroughly. Bone plugs werethen coated in EC/collagen gel by immersion in gel solution for 1 hourin a cell culture incubator. Native bone-EC constructs were cultured in24-well plates containing 1 ml DMEM/10% FBS/1% PS per well for 0, 4, or6 weeks.

Next, an osteoprotegerin enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) wasperformed. Native bone-EC constructs were washed in PBS and cultured inserum-free media for 4 days. Conditioned media samples were collectedand analyzed by osteoprotegerin ELISAs (Abcam) exactly according to themanufacturer's instructions.

Next, histology and immunohistochemistry (IHC) was performed. TEbone-cartilage constructs and native bone-EC constructs were washed inPBS and fixed in 4% paraformaldehyde (Electron Microscopy Sciences)overnight at 4° C. Native bone-EC constructs were decalcified overnightin Decal® (Decal Chemical Corporation) at 4° C. To prepare samples forparaffin embedding, constructs were dehydrated by graded ethanol washes(30%, 50%, 70%, 95%, 100%), each overnight at 4° C., cleared in xylenefor 1 hour at room temperature, and infiltrated with paraffin wax in 1:1paraffin:xylene mix for 10 minutes at 60° C. Samples were incubated in60° C. paraffin overnight to remove residual xylene, embedded, andsectioned (7 μm thickness).

For hematoxylin and eosin staining, samples were washed twice inHisto-Clear II (Electron Microscopy Sciences), rehydrated in gradedethanols (100%, 95%, 70%, 50%) for 1 min each, washed in deionized waterfor 1 min, stained in Gill No. 2 hematoxylin (Sigma-Aldrich) for 20 min,washed in running tap water for 1 min, immersed in acid alcohol (0.25%HCl in 70% ethanol) and then Scott's tap water substitute (10 g MgSO4,0.75 g NaHCO₃, 1 L ddH2O) for 30 seconds each, washed in running tapwater for 2 min, and stained in alcoholic eosin Y 515 (Leica) for 1 min.The samples were then dehydrated in graded ethanols (95%, 100%) for 1min each, washed twice with Histo-Clear II for 1 min each, mounted withClarion Mounting Media (Biomeda), and coverslipped.

For IHC, samples were rehydrated via gradient ethanol washes (100%, 95%,70%, 50%) for 1 min each and washed in running tap water for 5 min.Following antigen retrieval via citrate buffer, pH 6.0 (eBioscience) for40 min at 90° C., endogenous peroxidase activity was blocked with 3%H2O2 in methanol for 10 min at room temperature. Samples were thenincubated with 1% horse serum for 45 min at room temperature and primaryantibody (osteoprotegerin (Abcam), osteocalcin (Abcam)) diluted 1:200with 1% horse serum overnight at 4° C. in humidified chambers. Followingwashes with PBS, samples were incubated with biotinylated secondaryantibody (Vector Labs) for 30 min at RT, washed with PBS, incubated withHRP-conjugated streptavidin (Vector Labs) for 30 min at RT, washed withPBS, incubated with Vector®NovaRed™ peroxidase substrate for 1 min,washed with tap water, counterstained with hematoxylin OS (modifiedMayer's formula) (Vector) for 3 seconds, washed in running tap water for5 min, dehydrated in graded ethanols (95%, 100%) for 5 min each, washedtwice in Histo-Clear II for 5 min each, mounted with Clarion MountingMedium, and coverslipped. Histology and IHC images were captured with anOlympus CKX41 microscope outfitted with a Leica DFC 3200 camera.

FIGS. 12A-B show exemplary resulting osteochondral microtissueconstructs, under 10× and 20× magnification, respectively (the bar inthe lower corner of each of FIGS. 12A and 12B represents 100 μm). FIGS.12A-B show, in particular, an interface between an osteoblast construct(labeled oc) and a mesenchymal construct (labeled mc), grown inaccordance with the techniques described above, after six weeks ofculture. The arrows indicate a dense structure between the two layers.

To evaluate the effects of crosstalk between endothelial cells and bonecells in the disclosed systems, studies were conducted in which nativebone plugs were cultured with collagen gels seeded with or withoutendothelial cells and cultured for four weeks. The results indicate thatsamples of bone coated with collagen gels containing endothelial cellsproduce more new bone matrix and osteoprotegerin, indicating activationof anabolic bone pathways. Specifically, FIGS. 13A-B show bone growth incontrol tests in the absence of endothelial cells, at 10× and 20×magnification, respectively. This can be compared to the results shownin FIGS. 14A-B, which show bone growth in the presence of endothelialcells, at 10× and 20× magnification, respectfully.

As can be seen, bone growth was greater in the tests in whichendothelial cells were present. Future work will assess the extent towhich crosstalk with endothelial cells mitigates the negative effects ofinjurious mechanical and chemical stresses on bone behavior (e.g., bypromoting growth, as established by the results shown in FIGS. 13-14).In each of FIGS. 13A, 13B, 14A, and 14B, tissues were IHC-stained forosteoprotegerin, the bar in the lower right corner represents 100 μm, Bindicates a bone plug, and G indicates a collagen gel. FIG. 15 shows anELISA analysis of media samples conditioned by bone plugs coated incollagen gel with and without endothelial cells for 1, 4, and 6 weeks.The asterisk indicates that p=0.0362.

Example 2

The disclosed reactors can achieve cellular communication between thedifferent tissues in the two compartments of the reactor, and eachsignals to the other in response to changes in the local environment. Ina specific example, when bone is stimulated by hormones simulating themenstrual cycle, the hormones initiate an anabolic response and signalto cartilage that will respond even without direct exposure to thehormones. The ability to study this phenomenon is particularly importantbecause hormonal exposure has a protective effect against bone volumeloss. To evaluate this effect, a first experiment used a nativeosteochondral plug.

For the osteochondral plug experiment, human osteochondral plugs fromthe knees of women undergoing total knee replacement were explanted frommacroscopically asymptomatic regions of the joint. Three treatmentgroups were evaluated with different fluid flow between the top(cartilage) and lower (bone) chambers of the bioreactor. The fluid flowsto the top and bottom chambers included Dulbecco's Modified Eagle Media(DMEM), Fetal Bovine serum (FBS), andPenicillin/Streptomycin/Amphotericin (PSF), optionally with hormonesthat simulate the menstrual cycle. The treatment groups were as follows:

Treatment Groups: 1. Top: DMEM+FBS+PSF

Bottom: DMEM+FBS+PSF

2. Top: DMEM+FBS+PSF+hormones simulating the menstrual cycle

Bottom: DMEM+FBS+PSF

3. Top: DMEM+FBS+PSF

Bottom: DMEM+FBS+PSF+hormones simulating the menstrual cycle

For the groups in which hormones were supplied, the media was alteredover the time course shown in FIG. 16. The results (FIG. 16) showed thathormones affected both bone and cartilage. In particular, hormonetreatment reduced osteocalcin secretion and enhanced osteoprotegerinsecretion. The results also provided evidence of a cyclic bone responseto changing concentrations of hormones that mimicked changes that wouldbe seen throughout the menstrual cycle of a woman. The hormonesprevented loss of calcification in the osteochondral junction.

Example 3

In another demonstration of the use of the bioreactor, a chondrocyteresponse was shown using real time PCT (RT-PCR) to illustrate thatstimulation of bone tissue in the lower chamber of the bioreactorstimulated a chondrocyte response in the upper chamber. FIGS. 17-18 showdifferential expression of markers (as determined by RT-PCR) for acontrol medium that contained no estrogen or progesterone (first bar),and then different concentrations of hormones supplied to the chambersduring week 1 (w1: 0.1 nM estradiol), week 2 (w2: 1 nM estradiol), week3 (w3: 1 nM estradiol and 10 nM progesterone), and week 4 (w4: 0.1 nMestradiol and 50 nM progesterone). “Direct hormone stimulation”indicates that the hormones were supplied to the cartilage (top) chamberof the bioreactor; “osteoblasts mediated stimulation” indicates that thehormones were supplied to the bone (bottom) chamber of the bioreactorand had an indirect effect on the chondrocytes in the cartilage chamber.

FIGS. 19-20 show differential expression of markers (as determined byRT-PCR) for a control medium that contained no estrogen or progesterone(first bar), and then different concentrations of hormones supplied tothe cartilage chamber during week 1 (w1: 0.1 nM estradiol), week 2 (w2:1 nM estradiol), week 3 (w3: 1 nM estradiol and 10 nM progesterone), andweek 4 (w4: 0.1 nM estradiol and 50 nM progesterone). “Direct hormonestimulation” indicates that the hormones were supplied to the bone(bottom) chamber of the bioreactor; “chondrocytes mediated stimulation”indicates that the hormones were supplied to the cartilage (top) chamberof the bioreactor and had an indirect effect on the osteoblasts in thebone chamber.

Higher concentrations of estradiol in the bone chamber of the bioreactor(FIGS. 17-18, weeks 1 and 2) downregulated cartilage anabolic markerssuch as Sox9 and Aggrecan, but downregulation is more pronounced whenestradiol is applied to the osseous side. When progesterone isprogressively added (week 3 and 4), downregulation is still present butwith an opposite trend (higher when hormones are directly applied tocartilage). Bone anabolic markers are generally downregulated in allconditions. Cartilage hypertrophy marker ColX is upregulated only whenestradiol is administered to the osseous side, and downregulated in anyother conditions, suggesting a concomitant signaling from osteoblasts.Metalloproteinases are generally upregulated in cartilage for allconditions (except MMP-13 which has a more complex behavior).

As shown in FIGS. 19-20, metalloproteinases are generally downregulatedin bone for all conditions (except MMP-3 which has a more complexbehavior). Bone anabolic markers are generally downregulated in allconditions.

In view of the many possible embodiments to which the principlesdisclosed herein may be applied, it should be recognized that theillustrated embodiments are only preferred examples and should not betaken as limiting the scope of the disclosure. Rather, the scope of thedisclosure is at least as broad as the following claims. We thereforeclaim all that comes within the scope of these claims and theirequivalents.

1. A bioreactor comprising: a shell having an upper opening and an innerspace, the inner space having an inner diameter; an inner body situatedwithin the inner space of the shell, wherein the shell is configuredsuch that the inner body is insertable into the inner space through theupper opening, wherein the inner body includes a one-piece tubular bodycomprising an upper portion having first perforations and defining aninner upper chamber and a lower portion having second perforations anddefining an inner lower chamber, the inner body further comprising aprotruding ring positioned outside of the tubular body between the upperand lower portions, wherein: the protruding ring has an outer diametercorresponding to the inner diameter of the shell, such the protrudingring seals against a radially inner surface of the shell when the innerbody is inserted into the inner space through the upper opening; theupper portion of the tubular body has an outer diameter which is smallerthan the inner diameter of the shell to create an outer upper chamberbetween the upper portion of the tubular body, the protruding ring, andthe shell, the outer upper chamber being in fluid communication with theinner upper chamber via the perforations in the upper portion of thetubular body; and the lower portion of the tubular body has an outerdiameter which is smaller than the inner diameter of the shell to createan outer lower chamber between the lower portion of the tubular body,the protruding ring, and the shell, the outer lower chamber being influid communication with the inner lower chamber via the perforations inthe lower portion of the tubular body; and an upper ring positionedadjacent the upper opening of the shell above the inner body, whereinthe upper ring secures the inner body within the shell, the upper ringhaving a central aperture with an inner diameter that is about equal toan inner diameter of the upper portion of the tubular body.
 2. Thebioreactor of claim 1, wherein: the protruding ring of the inner bodyseals against an inner surface of the shell, thereby separating theinner space of the shell into the outer lower chamber and the outerupper chamber; the upper portion is a hollow cylindrical screenseparating the outer upper chamber from the inner upper chamber; thelower portion is a hollow cylindrical screen separating the outer lowerchamber from the inner lower chamber; and the shell includes an upperport allowing access through the shell to the outer upper chamber and alower port allowing access through the shell to the outer lower chamber.3. The bioreactor of claim 2, wherein: the upper port is an upper inletport and the shell further comprises an upper outlet port allowingaccess through the shell to the outer upper chamber; and the lower portis a lower inlet port and the shell further comprises a lower outletport allowing access through the shell to the outer lower chamber. 4.The bioreactor of claim 3, wherein the bioreactor is a first bioreactor;the upper inlet port is fed by an upper outlet port of a secondbioreactor; the lower inlet port is fed by a lower outlet port of asecond bioreactor; the upper outlet port feeds an upper inlet port of athird bioreactor; and the lower outlet port feeds a lower inlet port ofa third bioreactor.
 5. The bioreactor of claim 4, wherein the shell ofthe first bioreactor and shells of the second and third bioreactors areall integrated portions of a single multi-well tissue culture plate. 6.The bioreactor of claim 5, wherein the multi-well tissue culture plateis configured to receive the inner body of the first bioreactor andinner bodies of the second and third bioreactors within respectiveshells of the multi-well tissue culture plate to form the first, second,and third bioreactors.
 7. The bioreactor of claim 6, wherein themulti-well tissue culture plate is laterally shiftable relative to atleast one mechanical actuator positioned above the single multi-welltissue culture plate to sequentially apply loads to differentbioreactors.
 8. The bioreactor of claim 1, wherein the inner body isconfigured to contain a first tissue comprising osteoblasts, a secondtissue comprising chondrocytes, and an additional tissue layer betweenthe first tissue and the second tissue.
 9. The bioreactor of claim 8,wherein the additional tissue layer comprises a mesenchymal stem celllayer situated between the first and second tissues and physicallyisolating the first and second tissues from one another.
 10. Thebioreactor of claim 8, wherein the inner body is configured to containan additional layer comprising synovial cells adjacent to the firsttissue.
 11. A bioreactor comprising: a shell having an upper opening andan inner space, the inner space having an inner diameter; an upper ring;a piston; and an inner body situated within the inner space of theshell, wherein the shell is configured such that the inner body isinsertable into the inner space through the upper opening, wherein theinner body includes a one-piece tubular body comprising an upper portionhaving first perforations and defining an inner upper chamber and alower portion having second perforations and defining an inner lowerchamber, wherein: the upper portion of the tubular body has an outerdiameter which is smaller than the inner diameter of the shell to createan outer upper chamber between the upper portion of the tubular body andthe shell, the outer upper chamber being in fluid communication with theinner upper chamber via the perforations in the upper portion of thetubular body; the lower portion of the tubular body has an outerdiameter which is smaller than the inner diameter of the shell to createan outer lower chamber between the lower portion of the tubular body andthe shell, the outer lower chamber being in fluid communication with theinner lower chamber via the perforations in the lower portion of thetubular body; and the outer upper chamber is separated from the outerlower chamber; wherein the upper ring is positioned adjacent the upperopening of the shell above the inner body such that the upper ringsecures the inner body within the shell, the upper ring having a centralaperture for the piston, the central aperture having an inner diameterthat is about equal to an inner diameter of the upper portion of thetubular body; and wherein the piston extends through the centralaperture and into the inner upper chamber of the tubular body, such thatan interface between the piston with the upper ring and the tubular bodyforms a seal while allowing the piston to reciprocate relative to theinner body.
 12. The bioreactor of claim 11, wherein: the upper portionof the one-piece tubular body comprises a hollow cylindrical screenseparating the outer upper chamber from the inner upper chamber; thelower portion of the one-piece tubular body comprises a hollowcylindrical screen separating the outer lower chamber from the innerlower chamber; and the shell includes an upper port allowing accessthrough the shell to the outer upper chamber and a lower port allowingaccess through the shell to the outer lower chamber.
 13. The bioreactorof claim 12, wherein: the upper port is an upper inlet port and theshell further comprises an upper outlet port allowing access through theshell to the outer upper chamber; and the lower port is a lower inletport and the shell further comprises a lower outlet port allowing accessthrough the shell to the outer lower chamber.
 14. The bioreactor ofclaim 13, wherein the bioreactor is a first bioreactor; the upper inletport is fed by an upper outlet port of a second bioreactor; the lowerinlet port is fed by a lower outlet port of a second bioreactor; theupper outlet port feeds an upper inlet port of a third bioreactor; andthe lower outlet port feeds a lower inlet port of a third bioreactor.15. The bioreactor of claim 14, wherein the shell of the firstbioreactor and shells of the second and third bioreactors are allintegrated portions of a single multi-well tissue culture plate.
 16. Thebioreactor of claim 15, wherein the multi-well tissue culture plate isconfigured to receive the inner body of the first bioreactor and innerbodies of the second and third bioreactors within respective shells ofthe multi-well tissue culture plate to form the first, second, and thirdbioreactors.
 17. The bioreactor of claim 16, wherein the multi-welltissue culture plate is laterally shiftable relative to at least onemechanical actuator positioned above the single multi-well tissueculture plate to sequentially apply loads to different bioreactors. 18.The bioreactor of claim 12, further comprising biological tissuesituated within the inner body, wherein biological tissue comprises twoor more distinct biological tissue layers, wherein a first of the twodistinct biological tissue layers is an osteoblast construct and asecond of the two distinct biological tissue layers is a chondrocyteconstruct.
 19. The bioreactor of claim 11, further comprising aperturbation source that moves the piston relative to the inner body andprovides perturbation on tissue contained in the inner body, wherein theperturbation source comprises a mechanical driver that couples to thepiston to drive the piston in a reciprocal motion.
 20. The bioreactor ofclaim 11, wherein the inner body contains a first tissue comprisingosteoblasts, a second tissue comprising chondrocytes, and a mesenchymalstem cell layer situated between the first and second tissues andphysically isolating the first and second tissues from one another.